I think
as Teachers we work through the process of reflection on a daily basis, whether
conscious of its meaning or not. Every class provides new challenges and new
ways need to be thought of to overcome old problems. What might work for one
student might not work for the next if you need to change your approach or
teaching style to match the student you must truly understand the idea of what
you are teaching.
For
teachers to be able to get the best out of their student, they need to know how
each student in their class learns best, and adapt instruction to meet their
needs, an example of how we as teachers use Schon’s (1983) reflection-in-action and Kottcamp (1990) reflection on-line, daily whether conscious or not. If a student does not understand a correction
the teacher needs to adapt their methods in order to find an instruction that
the children can comprehend. Honey and
Mumford developed the four learning styles based on Kolb's but Honey and
Mumford believed that people would use different methods for learning depending
on the situation and their experience, moving between the models of learning. I
feel knowing how students learn best will help teachers to provide a greater
learning experience, however knowing how we learn ourselves will allow us to
reflect better upon our experiences and help us to expand our knowledge and
learning.
I found Karen Osterman (Osterman and Kottkamp 2004) theory of explaining tacit knowledge and the concept of learning
from experience and finding the missing knowledge one and the same. After some
further research and coming across both of these in my practice I now understand
it as:
Learning from experience discusses how we have missing
knowledge in an experience that we are unaware of until an unexpected
circumstance arises that presents that absent knowledge to us. It is then that
we reflect on our experience. Schon (1983) suggests that, “in practice,
reflection often begins when a routine response produces a surprise, an
unexpected outcome, pleasant or unpleasant.
The surprise gets our attention.
When intuitive, spontaneous performance yields expected results, then we
tend not to think about it; however, when it leads to surprise, we may begin a
process of reflection.”
The idea of tacit knowledge is that some knowledge is
instinctual. For example, while we can teach the idea and implications behind
certain moves there sometimes needs to be knowledge of how to perform and
highlight body movements, this can be difficult to transfer to another person. Maughan
(1996) explains that as teachers most of our work involves tacit knowledge or
muscle memory. When we find a teaching method that works we will stick with our
process, the result implies that we are unconsciously aware of our processes
until an occurrence that is unexpected makes us aware and we reflect on its
effectiveness.
“The purpose of
reflection is therefore to bring our reasoning processes and behaviour patterns
to the surface and make them explicit.
However, uncovering these can be difficult because so much of this
knowledge is tacit and spontaneous. When
we develop a pattern of behaviour that works in certain situations, we will
tend to repeat it until it becomes automatic.
We can’t describe the processes involved because we are not aware of
what is going on. It is only when something goes wrong or something unexpected
happens that we may stop and think about what we did and what we could or
should have done in the situation.”
Carolyn Maughan, “Learning how to learn: the skills developer’s guide to experiential learning” in Julian Webb & Caroline Maughan, eds., Teaching Lawyers’ Skills, (London: Butterworths, 1996) 59 at 76.
Carolyn Maughan, “Learning how to learn: the skills developer’s guide to experiential learning” in Julian Webb & Caroline Maughan, eds., Teaching Lawyers’ Skills, (London: Butterworths, 1996) 59 at 76.
I feel that as teachers we should not allow ourselves to
wait until unexpected circumstances arise to reflect on our work and practice.
If we learn to involve reflection in our daily professional work we can also
learn from results that produced an expected result and therefore process why
and how we can repeat these results. Reflection should be an ongoing process.
Fitts and Posner (1967) theory that learning is sequential;
moving through specific phases as we learn strengthens Twyla Tharp (2006) suggestion
on muscle memory. Fitts and Posner state there are three stages of learning a
skill.
×
Cognitive stage relates to the initial learning.
The identification and understanding of a skill results in the student
watching, thinking and analysing the desired skill.
×
Associative stage is where the student applies
practice to their understanding, this stage takes the longest and some people
may never progress to the next stage. Any implication at this stage will be
co-ordinated.
×
The Autonomous stage of skill revolves around
executing a skill automatically without having to stop and think about what to
do or how it needs to be executed. It is an advanced level of performance where
the individual can perform the skill fluently and instinctively.
Through my studies with ISTD muscle memory is covered in
both theory and practical classes. Once a skill is taught muscle memory occurs
as a result of practice to the point of unconscious thought. Once muscle memory
is implicated the dancer can develop moves to a higher level adding greater
difficulty and better performance.
Kolb (1983) suggests that depending on our learning style or what
we are learning we will enter his cycle at different markers. Some people may
choose to watch and reflect on a skill before they are to try it themselves,
others however may feel more compelled to first try the execution of the skill
and then reflect on how this needs to be improved. This theory acknowledges
that people learn differently depending on a number of influences e.g. level of
education, social and will enter at different stages. In order for a learning experience
to be effective the learner must pass through all four stages. Kolb believed
that our preference towards learning styles comes from the choice of how we
think about a task (Processing Continuum) or how we feel about the task
(Perception Continuum) and that we cannot perform both at the same time but
will choose which one will come first. This will determine are learning style.
This model is especially relevant for teachers, understanding
how someone learns helps to make their leaning more effective. If you know how
your students learn best you can adapt your teaching method to help enrich
their learning. Honey and Mumford developed on Kolbs work and published four
distinct learning styles: Activist, Theorist; Pragmatist and Reflector. To
optimise learning they suggested the learner identify their style, understand
and implicate it in their learning. Honey and Mumford (1982) devised a learning style
questionnaire to help people to identify and understand their learning style.
Below is a Link to a word document of Honey and Mumford's Learning style questionnaire
A British educational and training developer Phil Race
believes like Kolb that experimental learning is the most effective, to learn
by doing. However Race (2010) finds Kolb’s learning cycle too academic and had developed
a model based on how the majority of people learn and identifying the internal
motivation that makes a person want to learn. He implicates the use of everyday terms rather
than the language of professional psychologists. In 1993 Race’s ‘Ripple model’ of
learning states there are four elements to successful learning,
Needing/Wanting, Doing, Feedback and Digesting(reflecting) he further developed
this to incorporate a further two explaining/teaching and Assessing. This model
differs from Kolbs as it does not take a cycle formation but is regarded as a
whole a system of ripples on a pond one stage leading to the next.
 |
| Race's Ripple Model of Learning |
I feel that to varying degrees I have used these theories subconsciously in my professional work. Having researched them in greater detail I now understand the degree of reflective practice I have used and how I can develop them further. This can be through use of a reflective diary and associating Kolbs reflective theory and by exercising Honey and Mumfords learning styles to understand how I and my students learn best. A greater understanding of how refection and learning theories can be applied will help me to deepen my learning and that of my students.
References
Fitts, P.M., and Posner, M.I., 1967, Human performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole.
Honey, P. and Mumford, A., 1982, Manual of Learning Styles London: P Honey
Kolb, D. A., 1984, Experiential Learning, Englewood NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kottcamp, R. B. (1990). Means for Facilitating Reflection, Education and Urban Society.
Race, P., 2010, Making Learning Happen: A Guide for Post-Compulsory Education, Second Edition, London, Sage Publication Ltd.
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Webb, J.S and Maughan, C., 1996, Teaching lawyers' skills, London, Butterworths.
References
Fitts, P.M., and Posner, M.I., 1967, Human performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole.
Honey, P. and Mumford, A., 1982, Manual of Learning Styles London: P Honey
Kolb, D. A., 1984, Experiential Learning, Englewood NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kottcamp, R. B. (1990). Means for Facilitating Reflection, Education and Urban Society.
Race, P., 2010, Making Learning Happen: A Guide for Post-Compulsory Education, Second Edition, London, Sage Publication Ltd.
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Webb, J.S and Maughan, C., 1996, Teaching lawyers' skills, London, Butterworths.
